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Carbon dioxide is a chemical compound with the chemical formula . It is made up of that each have one carbon atom covalent bond to two oxygen atoms. It is found in a gas state at room temperature and at normally-encountered concentrations it is odorless. As the source of carbon in the carbon cycle, atmospheric is the primary carbon source for life on Earth. In the air, carbon dioxide is transparent to visible light but absorbs infrared, acting as a greenhouse gas. Carbon dioxide is soluble in water and is found in groundwater, , , and seawater.
It is a trace gas in Earth's atmosphere at 421 parts per million (ppm), or about 0.042% (as of May 2022) having risen from pre-industrial levels of 280 ppm or about 0.028%.
Burning is the main cause of these increased concentrations, which are the primary cause of climate change.IPCC (2022) Summary for policy makers in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USIts concentration in Earth's pre-industrial atmosphere since late in the Precambrian was regulated by organisms and geological features. , algae and cyanobacteria use energy from sunlight to synthesize from carbon dioxide and water in a process called photosynthesis, which produces oxygen as a waste product.
In turn, oxygen is consumed and is released as waste by all when they metabolize to produce energy by respiration. is released from organic materials when they decomposition or combust, such as in forest fires. When carbon dioxide dissolves in water, it forms carbonate and mainly bicarbonate (), which causes ocean acidification as atmospheric levels increase.Carbon dioxide is 53% more dense than dry air, but is long lived and thoroughly mixes in the atmosphere. About half of excess emissions to the atmosphere are absorbed by carbon fixation and ocean . These sinks can become saturated and are volatile, as decay and result in the being released back into the atmosphere. , or the carbon it holds, is eventually sequestered (stored for the long term) in rocks and organic deposits like coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Nearly all produced by humans goes into the atmosphere. Less than 1% of produced annually is put to commercial use, mostly in the fertilizer industry and in the oil and gas industry for enhanced oil recovery. Other commercial applications include food and beverage production, metal fabrication, cooling, fire suppression and stimulating plant growth in greenhouses.
As a linear triatomic molecule, has four vibrational modes as shown in the diagram. In the symmetric and the antisymmetric stretching modes, the atoms move along the axis of the molecule. There are two bending modes, which are degenerate, meaning that they have the same frequency and same energy, because of the symmetry of the molecule. When a molecule touches a surface or touches another molecule, the two bending modes can differ in frequency because the interaction is different for the two modes. Some of the vibrational modes are observed in the infrared (IR) spectrum: the antisymmetric stretching mode at wavenumber 2349 cm−1 (wavelength 4.25 μm) and the degenerate pair of bending modes at 667 cm−1 (wavelength 15.0 μm). The symmetric stretching mode does not create an electric dipole so is not observed in IR spectroscopy, but it is detected in Raman spectroscopy at 1388 cm−1 (wavelength 7.20 μm), with a Fermi resonance doublet at 1285 cm−1.
In the gas phase, carbon dioxide molecules undergo significant vibrational motions and do not keep a fixed structure. However, in a Coulomb explosion imaging experiment, an instantaneous image of the molecular structure can be deduced. Such an experiment has been performed for carbon dioxide. The result of this experiment, and the conclusion of theoretical calculations based on an ab initio potential energy surface of the molecule, is that none of the molecules in the gas phase are ever exactly linear. This counter-intuitive result is trivially due to the fact that the nuclear motion volume element vanishes for linear geometries. This is so for all molecules except diatomic molecules.
The hydration equilibrium constant of carbonic acid is, at 25 °C:
The relative concentrations of , , and the deprotonation forms (bicarbonate) and (carbonate) depend on the pH. As shown in a Bjerrum plot, in neutral or slightly alkaline water (pH > 6.5), the bicarbonate form predominates (>50%) becoming the most prevalent (>95%) at the pH of seawater. In very alkaline water (pH > 10.4), the predominant (>50%) form is carbonate. The oceans, being mildly alkaline with typical pH = 8.2–8.5, contain about 120 mg of bicarbonate per liter.
Being diprotic acid, carbonic acid has two acid dissociation constants, the first one for the dissociation into the bicarbonate (also called hydrogen carbonate) ion ():
This is the true first acid dissociation constant, defined as
The bicarbonate ion is an amphoteric species that can act as an acid or as a base, depending on pH of the solution. At high pH, it dissociates significantly into the carbonate ion ():
In organisms, carbonic acid production is catalysed by the enzyme known as carbonic anhydrase.
In addition to altering its acidity, the presence of carbon dioxide in water also affects its electrical properties. [File:Millipore .]] When carbon dioxide dissolves in desalinated water, the electrical conductivity increases significantly from below 1 μS/cm to nearly 30 μS/cm. When heated, the water begins to gradually lose the conductivity induced by the presence of , especially noticeable as temperatures exceed 30 °C.
The temperature dependence of the electrical conductivity of fully deionized water without saturation is comparably low in relation to these data.
is a potent [[electrophile]] having an electrophilic reactivity that is comparable to [[benzaldehyde]] or strongly electrophilic α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds. However, unlike electrophiles of similar reactivity, the reactions of nucleophiles with are thermodynamically less favored and are often found to be highly reversible. The reversible reaction of carbon dioxide with [[amine]]s to make [[carbamate]]s is used in scrubbers and has been suggested as a possible starting point for carbon capture and storage by amine gas treating.Only very strong nucleophiles, like the provided by and organolithium compounds react with to give :
In metal carbon dioxide complexes, serves as a ligand, which can facilitate the conversion of to other chemicals.
The reduction of to Carbon monoxide is ordinarily a difficult and slow reaction:
Photoautotrophs (i.e. and cyanobacteria) use the energy contained in sunlight to Photosynthesis simple from absorbed from the air and water:
Carbon dioxide has no liquid state at pressures below 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm). At a pressure of 1 atm (0.101325 MPa), the gas deposits directly to a solid at temperatures below 194.6855(30) K (−78.4645(30) °C) and the solid sublimes directly to a gas above this temperature. In its solid state, carbon dioxide is commonly called dry ice.
Liquid carbon dioxide forms only at above 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm); the triple point of carbon dioxide is 216.592(3) K (−56.558(3) °C) at 0.51795(10) MPa (5.11177(99) atm) (see phase diagram). The critical point is 304.128(15) K (30.978(15) °C) at 7.3773(30) MPa (72.808(30) atm). Another form of solid carbon dioxide observed at high pressure is an amorphous glass-like solid. This form of glass, called carbonia, is produced by supercooling heated at extreme pressures (40–48 GPa, or about 400,000 atmospheres) in a diamond anvil. This discovery confirmed the theory that carbon dioxide could exist in a glass state similar to other members of its elemental family, like silicon dioxide (silica glass) and germanium dioxide. Unlike silica and germania glasses, however, carbonia glass is not stable at normal pressures and reverts to gas when pressure is released.
At temperatures and pressures above the critical point, carbon dioxide behaves as a supercritical fluid known as supercritical carbon dioxide.
Table of thermal and physical properties of saturated liquid carbon dioxide:
| −50 | 1156.34 | 1.84 | 1.19 × 10−7 | 0.0855 | 4.02 × 10−8 | 2.96 |
| −40 | 1117.77 | 1.88 | 1.18 × 10−7 | 0.1011 | 4.81 × 10−8 | 2.46 |
| −30 | 1076.76 | 1.97 | 1.17 × 10−7 | 0.1116 | 5.27 × 10−8 | 2.22 |
| −20 | 1032.39 | 2.05 | 1.15 × 10−7 | 0.1151 | 5.45 × 10−8 | 2.12 |
| −10 | 983.38 | 2.18 | 1.13 × 10−7 | 0.1099 | 5.13 × 10−8 | 2.2 |
| 0 | 926.99 | 2.47 | 1.08 × 10−7 | 0.1045 | 4.58 × 10−8 | 2.38 |
| 10 | 860.03 | 3.14 | 1.01 × 10−7 | 0.0971 | 3.61 × 10−8 | 2.8 |
| 20 | 772.57 | 5 | 9.10 × 10−8 | 0.0872 | 2.22 × 10−8 | 4.1 |
| 30 | 597.81 | 36.4 | 8.00 × 10−8 | 0.0703 | 0.279 × 10−8 | 28.7 |
| 220 | 2.4733 | 0.783 | 1.11 × 10−5 | 4.49 × 10−6 | 0.010805 | 5.92 × 10−6 | 0.818 |
| 250 | 2.1657 | 0.804 | 1.26 × 10−5 | 5.81 × 10−6 | 0.012884 | 7.40 × 10−6 | 0.793 |
| 300 | 1.7973 | 0.871 | 1.50 × 10−5 | 8.32 × 10−6 | 0.016572 | 1.06 × 10−5 | 0.77 |
| 350 | 1.5362 | 0.9 | 1.72 × 10−5 | 1.12 × 10−5 | 0.02047 | 1.48 × 10−5 | 0.755 |
| 400 | 1.3424 | 0.942 | 1.93 × 10−5 | 1.44 × 10−5 | 0.02461 | 1.95 × 10−5 | 0.738 |
| 450 | 1.1918 | 0.98 | 2.13 × 10−5 | 1.79 × 10−5 | 0.02897 | 2.48 × 10−5 | 0.721 |
| 500 | 1.0732 | 1.013 | 2.33 × 10−5 | 2.17 × 10−5 | 0.03352 | 3.08 × 10−5 | 0.702 |
| 550 | 0.9739 | 1.047 | 2.51 × 10−5 | 2.57 × 10−5 | 0.03821 | 3.75 × 10−5 | 0.685 |
| 600 | 0.8938 | 1.076 | 2.68 × 10−5 | 3.00 × 10−5 | 0.04311 | 4.48 × 10−5 | 0.668 |
| 650 | 0.8143 | 1.1 | 2.88 × 10−5 | 3.54 × 10−5 | 0.0445 | 4.97 × 10−5 | 0.712 |
| 700 | 0.7564 | 1.13 | 3.05 × 10−5 | 4.03 × 10−5 | 0.0481 | 5.63 × 10−5 | 0.717 |
| 750 | 0.7057 | 1.15 | 3.21 × 10−5 | 4.55 × 10−5 | 0.0517 | 6.37 × 10−5 | 0.714 |
| 800 | 0.6614 | 1.17 | 3.37 × 10−5 | 5.10 × 10−5 | 0.0551 | 7.12 × 10−5 | 0.716 |
RuBisCO, commonly abbreviated to RuBisCO, is the enzyme involved in the first major step of carbon fixation, the production of two molecules of 3-phosphoglycerate from and ribulose bisphosphate, as shown in the diagram at left.
RuBisCO is thought to be the single most abundant protein on Earth.
use the products of their photosynthesis as internal food sources and as raw material for the biosynthesis of more complex organic molecules, such as , , and proteins. These are used for their own growth, and also as the basis of the and webs that feed other organisms, including animals such as ourselves. Some important phototrophs, the synthesise hard calcium carbonate scales.
Plants can grow as much as 50% faster in concentrations of 1,000 ppm when compared with ambient conditions, though this assumes no change in climate and no limitation on other nutrients. Elevated levels cause increased growth reflected in the harvestable yield of crops, with wheat, rice and soybean all showing increases in yield of 12–14% under elevated in FACE experiments.
Increased atmospheric concentrations result in fewer stomata developing on plants which leads to reduced water usage and increased water-use efficiency. Studies using FACE have shown that enrichment leads to decreased concentrations of micronutrients in crop plants. This may have knock-on effects on other parts of as herbivores will need to eat more food to gain the same amount of protein.
The concentration of secondary metabolites such as and can also be altered in plants exposed to high concentrations of .
Plants also emit during respiration, and so the majority of plants and algae, which use C3 photosynthesis, are only net absorbers during the day. Though a growing forest will absorb many tons of each year, a mature forest will produce as much from respiration and decomposition of dead specimens (e.g., fallen branches) as is used in photosynthesis in growing plants. Contrary to the long-standing view that they are carbon neutral, mature forests can continue to accumulate carbon and remain valuable , helping to maintain the carbon balance of Earth's atmosphere. Additionally, and crucially to life on earth, photosynthesis by phytoplankton consumes dissolved in the upper ocean and thereby promotes the absorption of from the atmosphere.
In humans, exposure to at concentrations greater than 5% causes the development of hypercapnia and respiratory acidosis. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Concentrations of 7% to 10% (70,000 to 100,000 ppm) may cause suffocation, even in the presence of sufficient oxygen, manifesting as dizziness, headache, visual and hearing dysfunction, and unconsciousness within a few minutes to an hour. Concentrations of more than 10% may cause convulsions, coma, and death. levels of more than 30% act rapidly leading to loss of consciousness in seconds.
Because it is heavier than air, in locations where the gas seeps from the ground (due to sub-surface volcanic or geothermal activity) in relatively high concentrations, without the dispersing effects of wind, it can collect in sheltered/pocketed locations below average ground level, causing animals located therein to be suffocated. Carrion feeders attracted to the carcasses are then also killed. Children have been killed in the same way near the city of Goma by emissions from the nearby volcano Mount Nyiragongo.. The Swahili language term for this phenomenon is mazuku.
Adaptation to increased concentrations of occurs in humans, including modified breathing and kidney bicarbonate production, in order to balance the effects of blood acidification (acidosis). Several studies suggested that 2.0 percent inspired concentrations could be used for closed air spaces (e.g. a submarine) since the adaptation is physiological and reversible, as deterioration in performance or in normal physical activity does not happen at this level of exposure for five days. Yet, other studies show a decrease in cognitive function even at much lower levels. Also, with ongoing respiratory acidosis, adaptation or compensatory mechanisms will be unable to reverse the condition.
However a review of the literature found that a reliable subset of studies on the phenomenon of carbon dioxide induced cognitive impairment to only show a small effect on high-level decision making (for concentrations below 5000 ppm). Most of the studies were confounded by inadequate study designs, environmental comfort, uncertainties in exposure doses and differing cognitive assessments used. Similarly a study on the effects of the concentration of in motorcycle helmets has been criticized for having dubious methodology in not noting the self-reports of motorcycle riders and taking measurements using mannequins. Further when normal motorcycle conditions were achieved (such as highway or city speeds) or the visor was raised the concentration of declined to safe levels (0.2%).
| + Typical concentration effects ! Concentration !! Note |
| Pre-industrial levels |
| Current (May 2022) levels |
| ASHRAE recommendation for indoor air |
| USA 8h exposure limit |
| Cognitive impairment, Canada's long term exposure limit |
| Drowsiness |
| Headaches, sleepiness; poor concentration, loss of attention, slight nausea also possible |
Miners, who are particularly vulnerable to gas exposure due to insufficient ventilation, referred to mixtures of carbon dioxide and nitrogen as "blackdamp", "choke damp" or "stythe". Before more effective technologies were developed, miners would frequently monitor for dangerous levels of blackdamp and other gases in mine shafts by bringing a caged Domestic Canary with them as they worked. The canary is more sensitive to asphyxiant gases than humans, and as it became unconscious would stop singing and fall off its perch. The Davy lamp could also detect high levels of blackdamp (which sinks, and collects near the floor) by burning less brightly, while methane, another suffocating gas and explosion risk, would make the lamp burn more brightly.
In February 2020, three people died from suffocation at a party in Moscow when dry ice (frozen ) was added to a swimming pool to cool it down. A similar accident occurred in 2018 when a woman died from fumes emanating from the large amount of dry ice she was transporting in her car.
In homes, schools, nurseries and offices, there are no systematic relationships between the levels of and other pollutants, and indoor is statistically not a good predictor of pollutants linked to outdoor road (or air, etc.) traffic. is the parameter that changes the fastest (with hygrometry and oxygen levels when humans or animals are gathered in a closed or poorly ventilated room). In poor countries, many open hearths are sources of and CO emitted directly into the living environment.
| + or averages for partial pressures of carbon dioxide (abbreviated p) | |
| vein blood carbon dioxide | |
| Alveolar pulmonary gas pressures | |
| Arterial blood carbon dioxide |
The body produces approximately of carbon dioxide per day per person, containing of carbon. In humans, this carbon dioxide is carried through the venous system and is breathed out through the lungs, resulting in lower concentrations in the arteries. The carbon dioxide content of the blood is often given as the partial pressure, which is the pressure which carbon dioxide would have had if it alone occupied the volume.
In humans, the blood carbon dioxide contents are shown in the adjacent table.
is carried in blood in three different ways. Exact percentages vary between arterial and venous blood.
Hemoglobin, the main oxygen-carrying molecule in red blood cells, carries both oxygen and carbon dioxide. However, the bound to hemoglobin does not bind to the same site as oxygen. Instead, it combines with the N-terminal groups on the four globin chains. However, because of allosteric effects on the hemoglobin molecule, the binding of decreases the amount of oxygen that is bound for a given partial pressure of oxygen. This is known as the Haldane Effect, and is important in the transport of carbon dioxide from the tissues to the lungs. Conversely, a rise in the partial pressure of or a lower pH will cause offloading of oxygen from hemoglobin, which is known as the Bohr effect.
Bicarbonate ions are crucial for regulating blood pH. A person's breathing rate influences the level of in their blood. Breathing that is too slow or shallow causes respiratory acidosis, while breathing that is too rapid leads to hyperventilation, which can cause alkalosis.
Although the body requires oxygen for metabolism, low oxygen levels normally do not stimulate breathing. Rather, breathing is stimulated by higher carbon dioxide levels. As a result, breathing low-pressure air or a gas mixture with no oxygen at all (such as pure nitrogen) can lead to loss of consciousness without ever experiencing air hunger. This is especially perilous for high-altitude fighter pilots. It is also why flight attendants instruct passengers, in case of loss of cabin pressure, to apply the oxygen mask to themselves first before helping others; otherwise, one risks losing consciousness.
The respiratory centers try to maintain an arterial pressure of 40 mmHg. With intentional hyperventilation, the content of arterial blood may be lowered to 10–20 mmHg (the oxygen content of the blood is little affected), and the respiratory drive is diminished. This is why one can hold one's breath longer after hyperventilating than without hyperventilating. This carries the risk that unconsciousness may result before the need to breathe becomes overwhelming, which is why hyperventilation is particularly dangerous before free diving.
All aerobic organisms produce when they oxidize , , and . The large number of reactions involved are exceedingly complex and not described easily. Refer to cellular respiration, anaerobic respiration and photosynthesis. The equation for the respiration of glucose and other is:
Anaerobic organisms decompose organic material producing methane and carbon dioxide together with traces of other compounds. Regardless of the type of organic material, the production of gases follows well defined kinetic pattern. Carbon dioxide comprises about 40–45% of the gas that emanates from decomposition in landfills (termed "landfill gas"). Most of the remaining 50–55% is methane.
Iron is reduced from its oxides with coke in a blast furnace, producing pig iron and carbon dioxide:
Acids liberate from most metal carbonates. Consequently, it may be obtained directly from natural carbon dioxide springs, where it is produced by the action of acidified water on limestone or dolomite. The reaction between hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate (limestone or chalk) is shown below:
The carbonic acid () then decomposes to water and :
Such reactions are accompanied by foaming or bubbling, or both, as the gas is released. They have widespread uses in industry because they can be used to neutralize waste acid streams.
Technology exists to capture from industrial flue gas or from the air. Research is ongoing on ways to use captured in products and some of these processes have been deployed commercially. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a However, the potential to use products is very small compared to the total volume of that could foreseeably be captured. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a The vast majority of captured is considered a waste product and sequestered in underground geologic formations.Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
Captured could be to produce methanol or . To be carbon-neutral, the would need to come from bioenergy production or direct air capture.IEA (2020), CCUS in Clean Energy Transitions, IEA, Paris Text was copied from this source, which is available under a
Most injected in -EOR projects comes from naturally occurring underground deposits. Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Some used in EOR is captured from industrial facilities such as natural gas processing plants, using carbon capture technology and transported to the oilfield in pipelines.
A candy called Pop Rocks is pressurized with carbon dioxide gas
The taste of soda water (and related taste sensations in other carbonated beverages) is an effect of the dissolved carbon dioxide rather than the bursting bubbles of the gas. Carbonic anhydrase 4 converts carbon dioxide to carbonic acid leading to a sour taste, and also the dissolved carbon dioxide induces a somatosensory response.
Carbon dioxide is sometimes used to top up wine bottles or other storage vessels such as barrels to prevent oxidation, though it has the problem that it can dissolve into the wine, making a previously still wine slightly fizzy. For this reason, other gases such as nitrogen or argon are preferred for this process by professional wine makers.
Carbon dioxide is used in many consumer products that require pressurized gas because it is inexpensive and nonflammable, and because it undergoes a phase transition from gas to liquid at room temperature at an attainable pressure of approximately , allowing far more carbon dioxide to fit in a given container than otherwise would. Life jackets often contain canisters of pressured carbon dioxide for quick inflation. Aluminium capsules of are also sold as supplies of compressed gas for , paintball markers/guns, inflating bicycle tires, and for making carbonated water. High concentrations of carbon dioxide can also be used to kill pests. Liquid carbon dioxide is used in supercritical drying of some food products and technological materials, in the preparation of specimens for scanning electron microscopy and in the decaffeination of .
Carbon dioxide has also been widely used as an extinguishing agent in fixed fire-protection systems for local application of specific hazards and total flooding of a protected space.National Fire Protection Association Code 12. International Maritime Organization standards recognize carbon dioxide systems for fire protection of ship holds and engine rooms. Carbon dioxide-based fire-protection systems have been linked to several deaths, because it can cause suffocation in sufficiently high concentrations. A review of systems identified 51 incidents between 1975 and the date of the report (2000), causing 72 deaths and 145 injuries.Carbon Dioxide as a Fire Suppressant: Examining the Risks, US EPA. 2000.
Liquid carbon dioxide (industry nomenclature R744 or R-744) was used as a refrigerant prior to the use of dichlorodifluoromethane (R12, a chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) compound). might enjoy a renaissance because one of the main substitutes to CFCs, 1,1,1,2-tetrafluoroethane (R134a, a hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) compound) contributes to [[climate change]] more than does. physical properties are highly favorable for cooling, refrigeration, and heating purposes, having a high volumetric cooling capacity. Due to the need to operate at pressures of up to , systems require highly mechanically resistant reservoirs and components that have already been developed for mass production in many sectors. In automobile air conditioning, in more than 90% of all driving conditions for latitudes higher than 50°, (R744) operates more efficiently than systems using HFCs (e.g., R134a). Its environmental advantages (GWP of 1, non-ozone depleting, non-toxic, non-flammable) could make it the future working fluid to replace current HFCs in cars, supermarkets, and heat pump water heaters, among others. [[Coca-Cola]] has fielded -based beverage coolers and the U.S. Army is interested in refrigeration and heating technology.
Carbon dioxide can be used as a means of controlling the pH of swimming pools, by continuously adding gas to the water, thus keeping the pH from rising. Among the advantages of this is the avoidance of handling (more hazardous) acids. Similarly, it is also used in the maintaining Reef aquarium, where it is commonly used in to temporarily lower the pH of water being passed over calcium carbonate in order to allow the calcium carbonate to dissolve into the water more freely, where it is used by some to build their skeleton.
Used as the primary coolant in the British advanced gas-cooled reactor for nuclear power generation.
Carbon dioxide induction is commonly used for the euthanasia of laboratory research animals. Methods to administer include placing animals directly into a closed, prefilled chamber containing , or exposure to a gradually increasing concentration of . The American Veterinary Medical Association's 2020 guidelines for carbon dioxide induction state that a displacement rate of 30–70% of the chamber or cage volume per minute is optimal for the humane euthanasia of small rodents. Percentages of vary for different species, based on identified optimal percentages to minimize distress.
Carbon dioxide is also used in several related cleaning and surface-preparation techniques.
The properties of carbon dioxide were further studied in the 1750s by the Scotland physician Joseph Black. He found that limestone (calcium carbonate) could be heated or treated with to yield a gas he called "fixed air". He observed that the fixed air was denser than air and supported neither flame nor animal life. Black also found that when bubbled through limewater (a saturated aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide), it would precipitate calcium carbonate. He used this phenomenon to illustrate that carbon dioxide is produced by animal respiration and microbial fermentation. In 1772, English chemist Joseph Priestley published a paper entitled Impregnating Water with Fixed Air in which he described a process of dripping sulfuric acid (or oil of vitriol as Priestley knew it) on chalk in order to produce carbon dioxide, and forcing the gas to dissolve by agitating a bowl of water in contact with the gas.
Carbon dioxide was first liquefied (at elevated pressures) in 1823 by Humphry Davy and Michael Faraday. The earliest description of solid carbon dioxide (dry ice) was given by the French inventor Adrien-Jean-Pierre Thilorier, who in 1835 opened a pressurized container of liquid carbon dioxide, only to find that the cooling produced by the rapid evaporation of the liquid yielded a "snow" of solid .
Carbon dioxide in combination with nitrogen was known from earlier times as Blackdamp, stythe or choke damp. Along with the other types of damp it was encountered in mining operations and well sinking. Slow oxidation of coal and biological processes replaced the oxygen to create a Suffocation mixture of nitrogen and carbon dioxide.
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